How to Talk to your Readers: Signposting
This Resource Page will help you:
- learn what signposting is and what it's used for
- learn how to effectively use signposting vocabulary
Introduction
Academic writing can be understood as a type of formal conversation where you need to effectively engage your readers, and signposting is a very common strategy for this purpose.
Signposting means telling your reader what you will do in your paper and its sections, how you will organize the content, and what you have done in previous sections. Signposting is like a “road map” that guides your readers through the content and organization of your paper.
In this Resource Page, you will learn two types of signposting that are frequent in academic writing: Order and Relations.
Signposting Order
These signposting phrases direct readers through your writing, provide a ‘roadmap’ for the order in which you will talk about things, help readers stay on track throughout, and remind them of key information.
Signposting order can be especially useful for introductions, conclusions, transitioning from one significant idea to another, or discussing methods and procedures.
Here are six common types of signposting order:
1. Listing
Listing signposting consists of phrases that will facilitate the reader’s understanding of the logic and sequence of the text.
In the example below, the author uses a typical listing strategy to sequence the arguments.
Let me identify what I take to be the potential dangers here. In the first place, one finds that Levinas’s work is understood and used within a discourse of multiculturalism. There are indeed rich resources in Levinas that can con- tribute to enquiry of this kind, but things go wrong, for example, where his understanding of the Other is assimilated to a politics of recognition. Second, there is the tendency to enlist his work in something like a psychology of dialogical relations, perhaps of student-teacher relations, where the aim is better communication. This may seem close to Levinas’s concerns, but the problem is that such communication is understood as a matter of personal relations and, it should be added, with a relative indifference to the content of what is communicated. Sometimes, a third point, Levinas’s work has been interpreted in a way that relies excessively on a vocabulary of transcendence, causing it to be rarefied and detached from the quotidian circumstances of human lives. That vocabulary easily becomes incantatory, and its reiteration stands in the way of a more exact realization of the practical significance of ideas in question. Finally, the reception of Levinas’s thought suffers from a more general problem, regarding the understanding of poststructuralism.
Standish, P. (2008). Levinas and the language of curriculum in Egéa-Kuehne (Ed.), Levinas and education at the intersection of faith and reason. Routledge.
- The first section of this paper will examine ...
- This paper begins by ... It will then go on to ...
- The essay has been organised in the following way: ...
- The remaining part of the paper proceeds as follows: ...
- The main issues addressed in this paper are a), b) and c).
- This paper first gives a brief overview of the recent history of X.
- This paper has been divided into four parts. The first part deals with ...
- This topic can best be treated under three headings: X, Y, and Z.
- The key aspects of (topic) can be listed as follows: X, Y, and Z.
- There are three reasons why X. These are ...
- This section has been included for several reasons: X ...; Y ...; and Z...
- The disadvantages of the new approach can be discussed under three headings, which are ...
(Adapted from the )
2. Foreshadowing
Foreshadowing phrases anticipate what will happen in the upcoming parts of the text. They typically open the writing and are a central part of introductions. The main function of foreshadowing signposting is to preview the content to come, as opposed to the organization of the text (as in listing signposting above).
In the example below, the author previews upcoming content with the phrase “In the next section”.
In the next section, I will examine some of the implications of Goals 2000 and No Child Left Behind on the educational situation of immigrant children, the roles of state and federal legislatures in passing legislation, as well as the role of the courts in deciding issues of contention - in essence, issues of federalism. I argue that this ground-breaking trend toward a convergence of federal power in directing educational policies is unlikely to be successful without more input from states, especially in meeting the needs of immigrant groups within states.
Taken from MICUSP: National Identity and Language Education Policy.
- This study set out to explore...
- The aim of the chapter is to introduce …
- This chapter seeks to assess the impact of …
- This chapter is subdivided into three sections. The first section will attempt to assess whether …
- The second part highlights the key theoretical concepts which …
- This chapter contextualises the research by providing background information on …
- This chapter discusses the specific methods by which the research and analyses were conducted.
- The next chapter describes synthesis and evaluation of ...
- A summary of the main findings, together with …, is provided in the next chapter.
- The next chapter describes the procedures and methods used in this investigation …
- In the next section, I will present the principal findings of the current investigation ...
- These analytical procedures and the results obtained from them are described in the next chapter.
(Adapted from the )
3. Changing Topic
This type of signposting is a straightforward way to tell your readers that you have stopped developing specific topics in your discussion. Rather than simply previewing the next topic, as in foreshadowing signposting, changing topic signposting mentions the previous focus and then announces the shift.
In the example below, the writer accomplishes this with the phrases “Now that we have considered” (previous topic) and “let us move to” (new topic).
Now that we have considered the treatment of multiple hedging in the research literature, let us move to a brief overview of some textbooks used for teaching academic writing, which will not only give examples of the different extents to which hedging is covered in textbooks (which is explained in much more detail by Hyland 1994) but will also give an indication of whether or not textbooks devote time or focus to multiple hedging and the question of its acceptability or to underhedging and overhedging as potential problem areas for students.
Taken from MICUSP: Attitudes towards and Frequency of Multiple Hedging in Written Academic English
- Turning now to …
- Let us now turn to …
- Let us now consider …
- Moving on now to consider …
- It would be useful at this stage to consider …
- Turning now to the experimental evidence on ...
- Having defined what is meant by X, I will now move on to discuss ...
- So far, this paper has focused on X. The following section will discuss ...
- Having analysed X in some detail, we are now in a position to return to …
- This chapter has demonstrated that ... It is now necessary to explain the course of ...
- Having discussed how to construct X, the final section of this paper addresses ways of ...
- This section has analysed the causes of X and has argued that ... The next part of this paper will ...
(Adapted from the )
4. Going Backward
Backward signposting is helpful when you need to remind your readers about points you have made previously in your text which are useful to provide continuity to your arguments.
In the example below, the author reminds the reader of a point made earlier in the text with the phrase “As previously stated”.
As previously stated, there are many different ways in which so can be used. Many of these uses cannot be placed into the anaphoric, discourse marker or deictic categories. Because of this we have created this other examples section where we will explain some of the other types of so.
- As discussed above, …
- As explained earlier, …
- As previously stated, …
- As indicated previously, …
- As described on the previous page, …
- As was mentioned in the previous chapter, …
- Returning (briefly) to the (subject/issue) of X, …
- As explained in the introduction, it is clear that …
- As was pointed out in the introduction to this paper, …
- As mentioned in the literature review, ...
(Adapted from the )
5. Progress
Progress signposting is helpful to let the readers know where they are in the discussion, or as a reminder, such as drawing the reader’s attention to previously stated information, especially when your writing is lengthy. Progress signposting also signals to the readers that there is more material to come.
In the example below, the writer reminds the reader of their progress through the text up to this point (“So far, we discussed”) and then adds additional information (“We showed that”). In the final sentence, “However” is used to signal that the discussion will now more on to a new focus.
So far, we discussed the implication of considering different forms of knowledge according to their nature (i.e. modal vs. amodal) or their level of abstractness for explaining conceptual activities (i.e. categorization or generalization effects). We showed that conceptual activities could be explained thanks to a global-matching process that occurred on modal exemplars instead of using multiple forms of memory representation. However, it might still be possible that we use different forms of knowledge depending on the nature of the activity (i.e. memory activities vs. perceptual activities).
- The studies presented thus far provide evidence that ...
- Two important themes emerge from the studies discussed so far:
- In view of all that has been mentioned so far, one may suppose that ...
- Thus far, the thesis has argued that …
(Adapted from the )
6. Summary
Summary signposting is helpful to conclude a paper or specific section and highlight the central takeaways.
In the example below, the author employs “In sum” and “This chapter addressed” to draw attention to the “evidence reviewed in the chapter,” which reinforces the key findings.
In sum, evidence exists for the mental simulation of space, speed and time in the comprehension of both word and sentences. Importantly, the relationship between language and perception appears to be bidirectional (language affects perception and vice versa)…
This chapter addressed the embodiment of language about space, speed and time. These three domains may less obviously be grounded in our perceptual processes for two reasons…
The evidence reviewed in this chapter has shown that space, speed and time are in fact dimensions that are included in mental simulations, or situation models, built during discourse comprehension.
- Together, these studies indicate that ...
- Overall, these studies highlight the need for ...
- Considering all of this evidence, it seems that ...
- Collectively, these studies outline …
- In all the studies reviewed here, X is recognised as …
- The evidence presented in this section suggests that ...
- Taken together, these studies support the notion that …
- Overall, there seems to be some evidence to indicate that ...
- Together these studies provide important insights into the ...
- All of the studies reviewed here support the hypothesis that …
- These research findings reported here consistently point towards …
- The evidence reviewed here seems to suggest a pertinent role for …
- These studies clearly indicate that there is a relationship between …
(Adapted from the )
- The previous section has shown that …
- To conclude this section, the literature identifies …
- This section has reviewed the three key aspects of …
- In summary, it has been shown from this review that …
- This chapter has described the methods used in this investigation and it has …
- This section has attempted to provide a brief summary of the literature relating to …
(Adapted from the )
- This study has identified …
- The research has also shown that …
- The second major finding was that …
- These experiments confirmed that...
- This study has found that generally …
- The investigation of X has shown that …
- The results of this investigation show that …
- The most obvious finding to emerge from this study is that …
- One of the more significant findings to emerge from this study is that …
(Adapted from the )
Signposting Relations
You can use this type of signposting to show that you are constructing logical steps in your writing, show the relationship between your ideas, and make them clear to the reader.
Here are five common types of signposting relations:
1. Explaining
In academic writing, clarity is fundamental. Explaining expressions guide your readers through your ideas to enhance their understanding.
In the following example, the writer proposes a redefinition/reclassification of key terms in their paper, using explaining expressions to make sure this is clear to the reader.
The terms citizenship education and civic education have typically been used interchangeably to refer to aspects of the school curriculum- whether formal or informal- that prepare young people for their roles as citizens. However, I would like to propose that we consider these terms in a more nuanced manner and to think of them as distinct entities.
Adapted from MICUSP: Schools and the development of national identity in young children: A justification for comparison.
- Throughout this paper, the term ‘X’ will refer to ...
- The term ‘X’ will be used in this thesis to refer to …
- Historically, the term ‘X’ has been used to describe …
- It is necessary here to clarify exactly what is meant by ...
- The phrase ‘X’ will be used in this study to describe the …
- According to Smith (2002), X can be defined as follows: ‘ ... ’
- In this article, the abbreviation XYZ will be used to refer to ...
- Throughout this dissertation, the term ‘X’ will be used to refer to ...
- The term ‘X’ is a relatively new name for ..., commonly referred to as ...
- In this essay, the term ‘X’ will be used in its broadest sense to refer to all ...
- In this dissertation, the terms ‘X’ and ‘Y’ are used interchangeably to mean ...
(Adapted from the )
2. Similarity
Drawing parallels between ideas is a crucial signposting strategy. Establishing similarities fosters cohesion and aids in illustrating associations between concepts or other texts, enriching the depth of your discussion.
In the following example, the writer draws parallels between anti-immigration sentiment in the United States at different time periods.
There are many similarities between the immigration debates that occurred at the beginning of the twentieth century and those that are occurring now, almost one hundred years later... In the mid-nineteenth century, many Irish Catholics immigrants were also vilified and looked upon with mistrust. Even earlier, Native Americans cannot have been happy at the arrival of the white Anglo-Saxon Protestants who took over their land. Hopefully, the understanding that no matter who we are, those who were here before us looked upon our arrival with suspicion will help us change our attitude towards immigration, and to realize that each new wave of immigrants has brought positive changes to the United States. The current new wave will too, if we only give them the opportunity.
Taken from MICUSP: Immigration and Americanization: Then and Now.
- Both X and Y share a number of key features.
- There are a number of similarities between X and Y.
- The effects of X on Y are similar to those of Z.
- Both X and Y generally take place in .
- These results are similar to those reported by (Smith et al. 1999).
- This definition is similar to that found in (Smith, 2001) who writes:
- The X is similar to that of comparable studies (e.g. Smith et al. 1999).
- The approach used in this investigation is similar to that used by other researchers.
- Studies have compared Xs in Ys and found that they are essentially identical.
(Adapted from the )
3. Contrast
In academic writing, signaling contrast is essential to clearly delineating differences between concepts, theories, or perspectives, either your own or among other thinkers, time periods, etc.
In the following passage, the writer contrasts Dewey’s educational ideas with those of traditional schooling through the use of signposting language, such as "rather than," "unlike," and "whereas,".
Dewey’s new educational ideas were centered around a classroom in which children would be active participants, exploring the world around them, guided by a teacher, rather than the traditional schooling where they were required to memorize facts given by the teacher. Unlike traditional schooling, which was set up to teach a large group of children the same information, Dewey’s ideal school would individualize instruction, and students would learn at their own rates. In short, the traditional method of schooling was centered on the teacher and the textbook, whereas Dewey’s method focused on the individual student.
Taken from MICUSP: Curriculum Changes in the Progressive Era and Great Depression
- Unlike Smith, Jones (2014) has argued …
- In contrast to Smith, Jones (2014) maintains …
- Despite this, little progress has been made in the ...
- However, this system also has a number of serious drawbacks.
- On the other hand, in spite of these recent findings about the role of ...,
- X is different from Y in a number of respects.
- X differs from Y in a number of important ways.
- There are a number of important differences between X and Y.
- Areas where significant differences have been found include X and Y.
- In contrast to earlier findings, however, no evidence of X was detected.
- A descriptive case study differs from an exploratory study in that it uses …
(Adapted from the )
4. Cause-effect
In academic writing, using clear markers of cause-effect allow you as a writer to show the connections between actions and outcomes,
In the following example, the writer frames the research questions around causes and effects.
A handful of scholars have focused on this issue and have used a variety of methods to research the following types of questions: What has caused the growing use of part-time faculty at community colleges? Should it be a concern? What are its effects? How should it be addressed?
Taken from MICUSP: Growing Trend of Part-Time Faculty at Community Colleges.
- X may have been an important factor in ...
- X may have contributed to the increase in ...
- X may have been caused by an increase in ...
- X may have played a vital role in bringing about ...
- In the literature, X has been associated with Y.
- X in many cases may be associated with ...
- There is some evidence that X may affect Y.
- It is not yet clear whether X is made worse by Y.
- This suggests a weak link may exist between X and Y.
- The use of X may be linked to ...
(Adapted from the )
5. Emphasis
In academic writing, emphasis is often key to conveying the significance of specific ideas. Emphasizing expressions through careful word choice or repetition ensures that crucial points stand out, enhancing readers' comprehension of your main arguments.
In the following text, the writer emphasizes one particular finding that they want the reader to pay attention to, possibly because this is where their topic leads next.
This increasing population of international students, especially from Asia, in the United States faces special challenges in terms of adaptation to a new living and learning environment at host universities and colleges (Perrucci & Hu, 1995). In addition to academic pressures, many international students tend to experience a variety of adjustment concerns, including language difficulties, insufficient financial resources, social integration, challenges in daily life tasks, homesickness, and role conflicts (Mallinckrodt & Leong, 1992). Interestingly, several studies suggest that students from Asia have more difficulty adjusting to life in the United States than international students from non-Asian countries (Abe, Talbot & Geelhoed, 1998).
Taken from MICUSP: International Student Adjustment.
- Most significantly...
- Interestingly...
- Notably...
- Most importantly...
- It is well known that …
- It is a well-known fact that …
- Smith’s well-known argument that …
- It is well known among educational researchers that …
(Adapted from the )